Globally, women like their male counterparts are deeply engaged in the environmental sector, encompassing agriculture, fisheries, forestry, mining, and related domains 1. In addition to their active participation, women exert considerable influence in the conservation and management of natural resources, including soil, water, forests, and energy 2. Women across the globe play indispensable roles in environmental conservation, often rooted in their daily responsibilities and traditional ecological knowledge. Their intimate relationship with nature, through tasks such as water collection, fuel procurement, farming, and seed preservation, positions them as effective stewards of biodiversity and sustainable resource management 345. They often possess rich reservoirs of both traditional and contemporary ecological knowledge 6. However, their involvement in environmental conservation is significantly constrained by patriarchal norms and socially constructed gender roles 1. As Regans asserts 7, patriarchy is predicated on the presumed natural superiority of men over women, fostering female dependence and subordination across all spheres of life. These patriarchal structures restrict women’s mobility and autonomy over their bodies and property. Although the degree of male dominance varies across cultures, the underlying principle of male control remains a consistent feature 8. Patriarchy thus serves as the foundational framework for gendered power imbalances, from which other forms of inequality emerge and persist 910. It institutionalizes normative values based on biological distinctions, shaping labor divisions, access to privilege, behavioral expectations, and the distribution of opportunities 9. Consequently, women’s contributions and expertise in environmental conservation and domestic resource management are frequently undervalued relative to those of men 11.

While global frameworks such as the Beijing Declaration emphasize gender equality in environmental governance 4, local realities often reflect persistent disparities in resource access, labor division, and leadership roles 81213. Women’s informal knowledge, though vital for sustainable practices, is frequently excluded from formal discourse, despite its proven efficacy in grassroots movements like the Chipko Movement in India and the Green Belt Movement in Kenya 1415. Moreover, women play a critical role in shaping environmental values among younger generations, particularly in Indigenous and rural communities, where they are responsible for water management and ecological education 16. By investigating these dynamics, the study aimed to illuminate the barriers and opportunities surrounding women’s participation in conservation, reaffirming their role as agents of ecological resilience and sustainable development.

Numerous economic and social activities undertaken by both women and men are intricately linked to environmental resources. However, many of these practices, such as bush burning, deforestation for timber and charcoal production, farming along riverbanks and wetlands, and improper waste disposal, contribute significantly to environmental degradation, thereby threatening the sustainability of natural ecosystems and the well-being of future generations 17. These activities have led to the depletion of forest cover, topsoil erosion, and the drying of water bodies, resulting in widespread ecological consequences, including global warming, prolonged droughts, floods, landslides, and declining soil fertility, with Uganda being notably affected.

Women, whose livelihoods are closely tied to the environment through roles as farmers, water and firewood collectors, and custodians of traditional ecological knowledge, are disproportionately impacted by environmental degradation 1817. Their direct and sustained interaction with both natural and built environments has cultivated deep environmental awareness, often making them more protective and responsive to ecological changes 19. Despite this, patriarchal norms continue to undermine women’s tenure rights and exclude them from environmental decision-making processes, thereby heightening their vulnerability and limiting their influence in conservation efforts 2011.

Raimi observes that women’s substantial contributions to environmental management are frequently undervalued due to entrenched patriarchal ideologies that shape societal norms and values 21. These ideologies perpetuate disparities in roles, resource access, and ownership, resulting in unequal capacities between men and women to respond to environmental challenges 2223. This situation is particularly acute in Northern Uganda, and notably in Gulu District, where patriarchal structures are deeply embedded 24. Gulu was selected for this study due to its pronounced gender dynamics and severe environmental degradation. Between 2010 and 2021, the district lost approximately 38,700 hectares of forest, representing a 6.2% decline in forest cover 24. In response, the Ugandan government imposed a ban on commercial tree cutting in the area, yet the region continues to experience erratic rainfall patterns and declining agricultural productivity, underscoring the urgent need for inclusive and sustainable environmental interventions 25.

In rural communities, women’s expertise in identifying medicinal plants, managing landscapes, and ensuring household health contributes significantly to ecosystem preservation and waste reduction 626. Despite these contributions, patriarchal norms continue to marginalize women by restricting tenure rights and excluding them from decision-making processes, thereby limiting their influence in formal conservation efforts 2011. This gendered exclusion is particularly evident in regions like Northern Uganda, where cultural norms reinforce male dominance in environmental governance 27. In Gulu District, for instance, forest cover declined by 6.2% between 2010 and 2021, prompting government intervention to ban commercial tree cutting 24, yet women’s roles in reversing degradation remain underrecognized.

Given the urgency of environmental degradation and its disproportionate impact on women, enhancing their engagement in conservation efforts is essential. This study critically examined the roles women play in fostering environmental sustainability within patriarchal contexts, with Gulu District serving as the focal point due to its entrenched gender norms and ecological challenges.

The current study found women's roles in environmental conservation to range from custodians of indigenous knowledge, engaging in tree planting initiatives, conservers of ecosystems, activists and leaders in environmental movements, participants in Decision-Making, and adopters of environmentally friendly technologies. The study findings align with the study conducted by 3, in which it was indicated that traditionally, women have been the primary stewards of biodiversity, although their contributions are often overlooked. Even today, women continue to perform critical tasks such as seed selection and conservation. Besides, in many contexts, women are more actively engaged in the household economy than men, and they carry the primary responsibility of providing their families with food, fuel, medicines, fibres, fodder, and other products. To meet these daily needs, women often select, improve, and adapt a diverse range of plant varieties, based on nutritional, medicinal, or culinary benefits, such as growing a variety of traditional species in home gardens 32.

The study found that the preservation of seeds for planting was predominantly carried out by women; however, with the advent of modern technology and new seed varieties, some men have also become involved in this process. Seeds, such as millet, sesame, and pigeon peas, were expected to be handled with great care starting from the harvest stage. Once harvested, the seeds were properly dried under the sun, sorted, and stored in clean pots, granaries, or in the kitchen area near the fireplace. The choice of storage method depended on the nature of the seeds. The use of kavera (polythene bags) for storing seeds and foodstuffs is a recent development in the Acholi community. Additionally, forests were traditionally protected, and certain tree species were revered due to their medicinal properties or spiritual significance. These plants were not to be cut down indiscriminately because of the beliefs attached to them. It was primarily women who took responsibility for caring for these plants, ensuring their preservation. Although participants acknowledged that many practices have changed over time, these traditions are still observed to some extent.

Findings indicate that women are key players in tree planting. This reflects global trends where women are increasingly recognized as central figures in reforestation efforts. Numerous case studies from Asia, Africa, and Latin America have demonstrated the positive impact of women’s involvement in forest governance 33. The findings further support the study results by Duguma, in which it was revealed that women are recognized for their essential role in forest management and in the utilization of forest products 33. They possess traditional knowledge crucial to forest rehabilitation, managing forest products, and improving forest governance, including the implementation of management plans. As such, any approach to forest management that marginalizes women undermines the achievement of forest management goals, as their knowledge is indispensable (ibid).

Furthermore, the study revealed that women play a significant role as conservers of ecosystems. The study results affirmed the vital contributions of women in sustaining biodiversity. These findings underscore the often-overlooked roles women perform in environmental stewardship within their communities. Hence, there is a need to recognize the unique position of rural women, as the primary users of their communities’ diverse resources, to serve as stewards of environmental renewal and sustainability 34.

Women generally exhibit a high degree of care and attentiveness in their daily activities. In agricultural practices, for instance, women participate alongside men in land preparation for crop planting. During this process, they often trim tree branches to reduce shading effects on crops but intentionally preserve tree stumps, allowing the trees to regenerate. While clearing land or weeding, women rarely resort to burning vegetation. Instead, they collect plant residues and heap them on anthills or at the edges of gardens to decompose and later enrich the soil as manure, thereby enhancing soil fertility. This is in agreement with the study conducted by Binelli, in which it was observed that women in Liberia and Sierra Leone enrich the soil through their daily activities 35, such as cooking and cleaning, by adding organic matter such as ash, potash, and leftover food and stalks to form African Dark Earth. This practice is based solely on traditional knowledge and is believed to improve soil quality.

The findings also highlight the continued influence of patriarchal norms that may constrain women's participation and leadership in environmental activism. Consequently, it may exacerbate environmental degradation. The study results are consistent with 36, in which it was revealed that reduced female involvement in conservation efforts may hasten environmental degradation. This implies that women are the majority in environmental activism in the communities. Green Belt Movement, initiated by women in Kenya on Earth Day in 1977, stands as a notable example of a conservation and forestry movement driven by female leadership 14.

According to a study conducted by 37, women are pivotal in transmitting cultural knowledge related to environmental conservation to future generations. Their role in environmental conservation is largely recognized, particularly in the education of children on simple environmental conservation (EC) practices and the development of skills in environmental management. The study findings also validate the research study conducted by 3, in which it was revealed that women, being primary caregivers and educators of the next generation, normally place significant emphasis on communication and education in addressing environmental challenges. They play a pivotal role in shaping attitudes, promoting the adoption of sustainable lifestyles, and instilling environmentally friendly values in their children. However, not all community members view women’s role in shaping environmental behavior as significant.

Furthermore, the findings revealed that women possess awareness and fundamental knowledge of how to care for both the homestead and the surrounding environment. This knowledge and these skills are passed on to the children within the community. They play a crucial role in safeguarding the health of their families, striving to create healthy and safe environments for them 38. For example, within the homestead, it is primarily women who plant trees in the compound areas and tend to them to ensure healthy growth. They maintain a clean surrounding environment by ensuring that waste is not disposed of recklessly. This is achieved by digging rubbish pits, where waste is disposed of and periodically burned, depending on need.

The findings revealed a moderate level of women’s participation in decision-making. These findings are in line with 35, in which it was revealed that the conventional gender roles that assign men to commercial spheres and women to domestic spheres have placed women at a disadvantage, limiting their ability to participate in environmental decision-making processes. In addition, according to the Ministry of Water and Environment report on environment and natural resource gender strategy 34, it was revealed that women and girls in Uganda, as in other sub-Saharan African countries, are the major users and managers of the environment in homes; they therefore bear the impact of environmental degradation. However, men still dominate the arena of planning and decision-making regarding the use, access, and management of the environment, and women’s views are often under-represented, implying that women’s practical and strategic needs are sometimes not addressed.

Important to note, the relatively higher standard deviations for items such as participation in decision making and adoption of environmentally friendly technologies indicate greater variability in perceptions, which is perhaps due to differing educational levels, economic status, social norms, and values among participants. Nonetheless, to foster women's engagement in conservation activities, it is perhaps crucial to enhance their level of participation in decision-making. More so, basic education and training in environmental conservation are essential. The results underscore the multifaceted roles women play in environmental conservation, while also highlighting areas where their contributions may be less recognized or more contested.

Though women play significant roles in environmental conservation, it is not without challenges. And many of the activities they perform are interconnected with their socio-culturally assigned roles. This is a deeper manifestation of the underlying existence of a strong social structure that confines women's engagement in environmental conservation within the private sphere and creates barriers to their penetration into the public domain. And this social structure is delineated as patriarchy. Therefore, this calls for a change in the cultural norms and values of the society for the challenges that women encounter in their engagement in conservation activities to be remedied. This will enable women to stretch beyond the private domain in their engagement in environmental conservation for a more sustainable outcome.

This study recommends a comprehensive sensitization and training program on the significance of equality and empowerment to both men and women before launching any development programme targeting environmental conservation. This will help to transform the patriarchal mindset or perception of the people in the community. Much consideration should be given to understanding the context of the region. This would make them embrace the development initiative and be more receptive to equal participation.

All authors were actively involved in the study. CRP developed the study concept and contributed to manuscript drafting, writing, and editing. AB and AA provided overall supervision throughout the research process.

The research was self-funded, with no external financial support.

Study data can be accessed upon request.