Migratory species regularly cross one or more national geographical boundaries, creating a geographically distinct part of each species population (Trouwborst, 2012). Every year, the white-eared kobus (Kobus kob leucotis) migrates across the Boma Gambella Tran borderland in Ethiopia in its largest seasonal migration (Nhial, 2019). As reported by Naidoo et al. (2016), migration is a continuous behavior rather than a variable response to environmental changes. Ungulates move regularly in highly seasonal environments (Mysterud et al., 2011). Migration in a temperate ecosystem refers to movement between high-elevation breeding grounds in summer and lowland areas with less snow in winter (Mysterud et al., 2011). Seasonal fluctuations in the availability of food, water, or both trigger migration in savannah ecosystems (Fryxell and Sinclair, 1988a). Large herbivores in Africa travel to locations with large spatiotemporal variation (Owen Smith et al., 2020). Migratory herbivores require more rainfall for their diet and soil fertility influences the quality of their forage (Owen-Smith et al., 2020). In East Africa, forage availability and quality influences significant movements of ungulates in many grassland ecosystems (Nhial, 2019). The migration of the white-eared kobus kob leucotis through the Boma Gambela ecosystems between South Sudan and Ethiopia is one of the most remarkable but understudied ungulate migrations 40. Kobus kob leucotis is a medium-sized antelope that lives mainly in wetlands with delicious green meadows in the GNP (Nhial, 2019). Males have a slightly yellowish-brown tint, while females have reddish or yellowish-orange cheeks and ears. Based on 11 and 39, the landscape of the GNP is low and flat with a high potential for grasslands and savanna grasslands, making it ideal for the species. The region is considered an excellent location and habitat for the white-eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis) due to preferred supply and potential wetland resources 39. The white-eared kob prefers low-rainfall grasslands in southern BSP during the rainy season because they are rich in nutrients and less susceptible to surface flooding (Fryxell and Sinclair, 1988a). Several hundred Kobus kob leucotis migrate from the floodplains of Sudd and Bandingilo National Parks in South Sudan to Gambella National Park in Ethiopia between January and June each year 24. Accordingly, Teitelbaum et al. (2015) recognized that there is a significant difference in migration distances within and between animals. In terms of migration distance, the migration of Burchell's zebra (Equus) was considered the longest migration of large animals. The white-eared kobus migration is the second largest in Africa after the Serengeti wildebeest migration in Tanzania 9. The migration occurs between January and June each year through the Boma Gambella ecosystem between Ethiopia and South Sudan 24.

In South Sudan, Kob migration routes typically avoid local human settlements, with the exception of short-term pastures for livestock 35. Its activity is influenced by anthropogenic factors such as urbanization, settlement expansion and rapidly growing refugee camps adjacent to Gambella National Park in Ethiopia (Waterville, 2015). Consistent with this, Kauffman et al. (2021) found that landscapes around the world are changing rapidly and that ungulates living alongside humans are highly vulnerable to changes in land use that affect their ability to migrate. Similarly, grasslands in BSP dry out during the high temperature season, and then white-eared kobus lose their food and are dispersed after moving to Boma National Park in South Sudan 11.

According to 23, management of migration corridors serves as temporary areas where animals can find food during migration, as well as sustainable routes for species to move within their seasonal ranges. On the other hand, future genetic research on the species of the genus Kobus should be aimed at natural populations in Africa for better management and conservation 35.

The spatiotemporal distribution of food availability along migration routes influences animal movements during migration (Aikens et al., 2017). Similarly, the migration routes and home ranges of the white-eared kobus have been found to overlap with hotspots of armed conflict and livestock areas in the Gambela landscape 3. Although migration has a distinct pattern of movement season, behavior and external factors, the white-eared kob (Kobuskobleucotis, Lichtenstein & Peters, 1853) is documented in Omo National Park and shows that its range extends further into Omo than previously known(Asfaw et al., 2022). Table1

Migratory ungulates are threatened worldwide 17. A significant risk to migratory mammals is direct human-caused mortality of wildlife in many protected areas in Ethiopia 12 (Bunn, 2019; Legas and Taye, 2019; Shibru et al., 2020). According to 12, 2 and Ahmedin (2000), inadequate environmental education, lack of community participation, unfair revenue sharing system and lack of comprehensive conservation strategies contribute to the risks at. Therefore, a number of researchers have identified the following threats in the habitats and migration routes of the white-eared kobus.

Many migrations are affected by overhunting 30 and the level of hunting is more directly related to the number of wild animals in natural ecosystems 27. Similarly, bush meat collection poses a significant threat to the management of Gambella National Park, particularly to the white-eared cob species (Legas and Taye, 2019). It was previously thought that there was only a small population of food-producing hunters in the area 28.

Both refugees and some military personnel in Gambella Regional State have had a negative impact on the park's wildlife resources. The type of hunting in the region is also changing to automatic weapons 11. The traditional methods of wildlife hunting, such as setting traps and snares, are no longer sustainable as the reasons for hunting in the region are largely shifting from subsistence to commercial hunting 45. In this scenario 26, it was noted that the tragic reality of conflict within biodiversity hotspots requires a better understanding of the complex dynamics affecting wildlife and ecosystems. Figure 3

Formal approaches to wildlife conservation in Ethiopia followed a similar pattern to other countries in Anglophone Africa, where extensive networks of generally exclusive protected areas were established 43. However, Ethiopia's protected areas are facing increasing threats and changes in land cover due to population growth, competing claims of surrounding communities, incompatible investments, lack of environmental legislation, lack of complete plans and timely updates for protected areas, etc. (Menbere., 2021). The Ethiopian government promotes large-scale agricultural investments in lowland regions of the country, so large-scale commercial agricultural programs have been the main driver of land use/cover change in Ethiopia 36. Likewise, agricultural investments in the Gambella region have led to a reduction in the previous national park area from 5,06 km² to 4,575 km²25. On the other hand, refugee camps continue to increase along the migration route, causing agricultural production to be an important anthropogenic factor that alters the E-Eared Kob migration route (Waterville, 2015). Furthermore, the percentage area changes in the Gambella region between 2000 and 2017 showed those most tropical grasslands of the LU/LC class declined by 50% 16. The conversion of savanna/tropical grasslands into agricultural cropland has resulted in diverse and widespread environmental damage.

In most parts of Ethiopia, particularly in the Gambella region, the failure to consider “rural land rights” was identified as a core problem, leading to competition for land use rights between small farmers and all state institutions associated with the socio-economic expansion Coping with disruptions and developing LSAI in Ethiopia 5. The results of LSAI have been a controversial topic in public and hypothetical discourses, especially regarding the quantification of the impact of such investments on natural resources 29. On the other hand, a rapidly growing human population and the prospect of oil exploration threaten the Kobus kob leucotis in South Sudan, potentially putting the available corridor for white-eared kob in both countries at risk 37.

Armed conflicts have occurred throughout the species' migration and feeding sites. This explains why migration remains poorly understood and increases the threat to the extreme 40. Forced relocations in villages bordering Gambella National Park also led to degradation of the species' important habitats and foraging areas 1. The communities of these villages used to clear grassland and trees to build their houses and participated in hunting 1. Consistent with this 38, they found that distances from settlements and water resulted in noticeable spatial segregation between species in the location of their points of maximum density, presumably to minimize interspecific competition for food and water.

The complete degradation of wetlands, the creation of a new landscape, conflicts of interest due to resource scarcity and the reduction of forested land cover have placed severe pressure on the survival of the white-eared kob in the Gambella region 2365. However, sustainable tourism maximizes the benefits and minimizes its negative impacts through effective policies and plans for great progress in the future 48. Furthermore, international contributions are crucial, but ultimate sustainable success depends on the daily commitment and efforts of those at the local level who must interact 47. Figure 4

There is tourism potential in the Gambella region. However, it is still at an early stage of developing its tourism sector. Gambelle National Park and surrounding areas in Ethiopia are the best places to photograph white-eared cobs 24. According to 4, the landscape is interconnected through ecosystems, cultures and shared cultural and ecological characteristics. These factors provide opportunities to promote coordinated development, peace and security. The protection of iconic species is significantly supported by the adaptation and application of tourism marketing for national parks and sustainable tourism 8. To be effective, a practical assessment, feasibility, cost-effectiveness analysis, social impact analysis and sustainability for each individual site are the most critical solutions 32. Additionally, because many terrestrial animal migrations disappear before they can be fully documented, a fundamental analysis of the movement patterns of large mammalian herbivores is critical 37. Since the migration area often spans multiple political organizations, intergovernmental cooperation is an essential but often challenging aspect of migration protection (Horns and Ekerciolu, 2018). Therefore, properly managed ecotourism can result in an overall positive change in the expected survival of endangered species such as Kobus kob leucotis 15. The health and persistence of large game herds and the resulting positive economic impacts rely largely on the effective management of seasonal ranges and movement routes or “migration corridors” 23. However, conservation of migratory species can be problematic due to their need for large protected areas 44.

Ecotourism offers a win-win approach to contribute a net positive effect on both the conservation of the natural ecosystem and the livelihoods of communities 14. Ethiopia promotes the tourism industry in Ethiopia due to its large mammal diversity and scenic area, expansion of protected areas, peaceful and friendly people and endemism 10. To strengthen the feasibility of self-financing PAs while protecting its iconic migratory species, Ethiopia needs to expand its ecotourism business 14. This can be achieved by expanding the application of adaptive management concepts and improving local community participation in ecotourism decision-making (Cheung, 2015). The country needs to promote sustainable tourism, including ecotourism, based on the principles of sustainability – social justice, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability 48. On the other hand, successful conservation measures require in-depth knowledge of the ecology of the population and the migratory behavior of the species and are crucial for sound conservation 44. In this context, the Gambella region is also referred to as a desert paradise due to its attractive tourism potential 20. Wildlife tourism has positively contributed to providing diverse employment opportunities to the community, primarily through the integration of cultural and natural resources into the region's wilderness experience 34. Therefore, offering tourism facilities and services and creating employment opportunities for members of local communities are the positive impacts of tourism activities 19. However, tourism does not currently address other major conservation threats associated with natural resource extraction industries 15. Modest changes can have significant impacts, such as maintaining a small area of habitat that serves as an important migration corridor or buffer zone; Ecotourism could provide the necessary incentive 32. Table 2

For threatened species that are well represented in existing but underfunded protected areas, appropriately managed ecotourism can result in a net gain in expected survival overall 15. To achieve sustainable wildlife management and rural community development around Gambella National Parks, stakeholders' interests must be aligned 33. This strengthens the suggestion that the sustainability of conservation projects depends on the involvement of all stakeholders and the development of a supportive constituency. While international organizations play a critical role in educating, equipping, and facilitating Tran’s boundary conservation, they cannot enforce it 47. “Major research needs are to collect and analyze data on ungulate movements to refine the delineation of winter ranges, summer ranges and migration corridors and to support a better understanding of how ungulates use these habitats 18,” research efforts to measure such key population parameters Identifying additional threatened species and quantifying the various impacts of ecotourism on these parameters is now a priority as ecotourism is increasingly advocated as a conservation tool 15.

Appropriate environmentally friendly management needs to be developed with options to mitigate impacts and minimize future impacts 33. Community-based ecotourism ensures the involvement of local communities from the grassroots to improve their living standards 13. In addition to development activities, any development practice should also consider and take into account the rapidly diminishing natural resources 41. Securing seasonal ranges, resource protection, and government support is the most urgent conservation measure for many ungulate migrations that require attention 30. In this scenario, improving infrastructure (roads, accommodation providers, campsites, water supply, internet cafes, telecommunications, banking services and electricity) is crucial for the tourism destinations with the involvement of multiple stakeholders 21. The ongoing conflicts and sustainable symbiosis between ecotourism and conservation require urgent policy interventions, especially to integrate the principles and practices of ecotourism into the neoliberal approach to conservation 14.